Western sanctions applied in the wake of the initial invasion disrupted Russia’s ability to reach some European audiences with its state-sponsored media outlets. But Russia has since adjusted its information operations to focus more on social media; in addition to attacking Western public support to fund Ukraine’s defense, it has expanded targeted propaganda efforts in different parts of the world, including Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East.

In the second year of its war, faced with international sanctions, a damaged reputation, and the ban of state-sponsored RT and Sputnik in many Western countries, Russia shifted toward more targeted and tailored influence operations, using TikTok, Telegram, and other social platforms to expand its international audience—especially in the Global South, where Russian state media are still big players. Russia also deepened its cooperation in the media and information spheres with sympathetic countries.